Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when pathogens evolve to evade the drugs designed to kill them, representing one of the greatest threats to global health. Bacterial AMR directly caused 1.27 million deaths in 2019 and is projected to cause up to 39 million deaths globally between 2025 and 2050. It severely jeopardizes modern medical procedures, making routine surgeries, organ transplants, and cancer chemotherapy increasingly dangerous due to the risk of untreatable opportunistic infections.

Molecular Mechanisms of Resistance Bacteria employ several sophisticated defense strategies to neutralize or expel antibiotics:

• Enzymatic Degradation: Bacteria produce enzymes like β-lactamases that break down the antibiotic's molecular structure, rendering it ineffective.
• Efflux Pumps: Membrane transport proteins (such as the RND ...