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Accurately determining the State of Charge (SOC) is a fundamental challenge in Battery Management Systems (BMS), particularly for electric vehicles (EVs) where it directly impacts range, safety, and battery longevity. Because a dedicated SOC sensor does not exist, the value must be estimated using physical parameters such as voltage, current, and temperature.

The two primary methodologies for SOC estimation are Coulomb counting and the Kalman filter algorithm. While Coulomb counting is computationally simple, it is highly susceptible to errors in initial conditions and long term drift caused by battery selfdischarge. In contras ...