In 1856, a U.S. senator was trapped under his bolted-down desk and beaten with a gold-headed cane until he was blinded by his own blood. The attacker received fan mail and replacement canes. This was political violence, celebrated and normalized, on the floor of the United States Senate.

This episode explores Charles Sumner, the Massachusetts senator called the conscience of a nation. We follow his journey from a Beacon Hill abolitionist household to a Paris epiphany about learned racism, his pioneering legal arguments, and the brutal caning that made him a martyr. His intensely contradictory legacy, arrogant yet courageous, shows how breaking entrenched injustice rarely happens through politeness.

• How a Sorbonne lecture hall convinced him racism was learned, not biological
• His 1849 Roberts v. City of Boston case arguing  ...