Reading proficiency in English is simultaneously a gateway skill and a marker of educational achievement. For adult English learners, the ability to read competently unlocks an enormous range of opportunities: accessing healthcare information, navigating government services, supporting children's schooling, advancing in the workplace, and pursuing further education. Reading is also the primary vehicle through which vocabulary grows, grammar is internalized, and cultural knowledge is acquired.

The challenges that English reading presents to non-native speakers are substantial. The English writing system, though alphabetic, is notoriously irregular. Spelling-pronunciation relationships that hold in one context (the letter combination "ough" in "though," "thought," "through," "thorough," and "tough") may vary dramatically in another, creating  ...